How a 200-Year-Old Novel Guides Modern Biomedicine
More than two centuries ago, an 18-year-old Mary Shelley penned a story that would transcend generations, offering a prophetic glimpse into the ethical dilemmas of scientific advancement.
Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, born from a stormy night's ghost story challenge among literary friends, has evolved from Gothic fiction to a persistent cultural touchstone for scientific ethics. As Victor Frankenstein defied natural boundaries to animate his creature, today's scientists grapple with equally profound questions in genetic engineering, cloning, and artificial intelligence 1 .
This article explores how Shelley's classic novel provides an enduring framework for examining the complex ethical landscape of contemporary biomedical sciences, reminding us that scientific achievement must be guided by moral responsibility and compassionate consideration of consequences.
Modern capabilities to alter life at its most fundamental level
Creating identical genetic copies of organisms
Creating non-biological intelligence with ethical implications
Mary Shelley's novel didn't emerge from a vacuum but was firmly rooted in the scientific debates of her time. The early 19th century was marked by intense philosophical and scientific discussions about the boundaries between life and death, particularly through the emerging field of galvanism—the study of electricity's effect on animal tissue 2 .
Italian scientist whose experiments with frog legs that twitched when touched with electrical current suggested that electricity might be the very essence of life 2 .
Galvani's nephew who conducted public demonstrations using electricity to animate human corpses, including a sensational 1803 exhibition at Newgate Prison 2 .
| Scientist | Position | Influence on Frankenstein |
|---|---|---|
| William Abernethy | Argued for a special vital "spark" that animated matter | Inspired the concept of the "spark of being" |
| William Lawrence | Maintained that life emerged simply from the functioning of material parts | Influenced the materialist approach to creation |
Shelley attended scientific lectures by prominent figures like Sir Humphry Davy, whose writings celebrated chemistry's power to enable humankind to "modify and change the beings surrounding him, and by his experiments to interrogate nature with power, not simply as a scholar... but rather as a master, active with his own instruments" 2 . This sentiment echoes perfectly in Victor Frankenstein's ambition to become a "master" over life itself.
In recent decades, Frankenstein has transitioned from literary classic to a crucial tool in bioethics education, particularly for health sciences students who must grapple with the moral dimensions of their work 3 . The novel provides a narrative foundation for discussing three key areas in contemporary biomedical ethics:
The importance of empathy in healthcare and research practices 3 .
"Just because we can do something, does it mean we should?" — The central question Frankenstein poses that lies at the heart of modern bioethics .
| Frankenstein Theme | Modern Biomedical Issue | Ethical Consideration |
|---|---|---|
| Creating life from dead matter | Stem cell research & somatic cell nuclear transfer | Use of embryonic tissues & definition of life |
| Abandonment of creation | Responsibility for technological consequences | Scientist accountability & regulation |
| "Playing God" | Genetic engineering & human germline modification | Natural boundaries & unintended effects |
| Rejection based on appearance | Genetic discrimination & bioenhancement | Social equality & human dignity |
The novel's subtitle, "The Modern Prometheus," directly references the Greek myth of Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and was punished for his transgression—a powerful metaphor for scientific overreach that continues to inform discussions about humanity's right to manipulate the fundamental processes of life .
If Victor Frankenstein's fictional creation had a real-world counterpart in modern biotechnology, it would undoubtedly be somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)—the laboratory technique used in cloning 5 8 . The 1996 cloning of Dolly the sheep marked a Frankenstein-like moment in science, where researchers successfully created a viable animal from a somatic cell, demonstrating that specialized cells could be reprogrammed to create entirely new organisms 5 8 .
| Year | Species Cloned | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 1958 | Frogs (Xenopus laevis) | First animal cloning using SCNT principles |
| 1996 | Dolly the Sheep | First mammal cloned from adult somatic cells |
| 2000 | Pig | Demonstrated cloning potential for livestock |
| 2005 | Dog (Afghan hound) | First cloning of a canine species |
| 2018 | Cynomolgus monkey | First primate cloning, bridging closer to human biology |
The successful cloning of primates in 2018 represented a quantum leap in SCNT technology, overcoming technical barriers that had previously limited cloning efficiency, particularly in higher mammals 5 .
The most significant technical challenge overcame was what scientists call "epigenetic barriers"—molecular modifications that prevent normal development of cloned embryos 5 .
The sophisticated procedures behind SCNT rely on a precise combination of biological materials and chemical reagents, each serving a specific function in the delicate process of cellular reprogramming. These tools represent the modern equivalent of Frankenstein's laboratory equipment, enabling scientists to manipulate the fundamental building blocks of life with increasing precision.
| Reagent/Tool | Function in SCNT Process | Biological Principle |
|---|---|---|
| Metaphase II Oocytes | Provide reprogramming cytoplasm | MII oocytes contain high levels of reprogramming factors |
| Somatic Cells (e.g., fibroblasts) | Source of donor nucleus | Contain complete genetic blueprint of donor organism |
| Micromanipulators | Enable precise enucleation & injection | Allow microscopic handling of cellular components |
| Strontium Chloride (SrCl₂) | Artificial oocyte activation | Triggers calcium oscillations mimicking fertilization |
| Caffeine | Improves blastocyst formation | Enhances reprogramming efficiency |
| Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors | Remove epigenetic marks | Facilitates nuclear reprogramming |
| Phytohaemagglutinin | Cell adhesion & fusion | Binds donor cell to enucleated oocyte |
The Oregon National Primate Research Center team employed an enhanced SCNT procedure that built upon decades of incremental improvements, with one key innovation being the use of caffeine during the enucleation process to improve subsequent blastocyst formation and embryonic stem cell isolation 5 .
The team addressed epigenetic barriers by using histone deacetylase inhibitors, compounds that help remove epigenetic marks from the donor DNA, allowing it to be more effectively reprogrammed by the egg cytoplasm 5 .
Mary Shelley's Frankenstein continues to illuminate the ethical dimensions of biomedical science two centuries after its publication, not as an anti-science polemic but as a timeless meditation on responsibility. The novel doesn't condemn scientific exploration itself—after all, Shelley presents her scientist protagonist with a degree of sympathy—but rather warns against the pursuit of knowledge divorced from ethical consideration and compassionate responsibility for one's creations 2 3 .
The true legacy of Frankenstein for modern science may lie in its powerful demonstration that technology itself is neither good nor evil—its moral character emerges from how it's developed and applied 2 .
"I was benevolent and good; misery made me a fiend. Make me happy, and I shall again be virtuous." — The Creature's plea that highlights how beings are shaped not just by their creation but by how they're treated and integrated into society 2 .
As we stand at the threshold of unprecedented capabilities in genetic engineering, artificial intelligence, and human enhancement, Frankenstein's question about whether we should do everything we can do remains urgently relevant. In an era of increasingly powerful biological technologies, Frankenstein reminds us that our innovations are only as virtuous as the compassion and wisdom with which we deploy them, and that scientific progress must be guided by an unwavering commitment to human welfare and ethical responsibility.
The novel continues to provide "continual food for discovery and wonder"—not just about what science can achieve, but what it ought to achieve for the betterment of humanity 2 .