Exploring the complex realities behind water source choices through women's experiences and perceptions
It's pre-dawn in rural Ghana, and Esther is already on her third trip to the river today. She balances a 25-liter container on her head while guiding her young daughter who carries a smaller pot. Though her village has a functioning borehole installed just two years ago, Esther still regularly collects water from the unprotected river source a kilometer away. Her choice seems paradoxical to public health officials—why would someone choose potentially contaminated water over clean, accessible water?
The answer lies not in engineering reports or water quality tests, but in the complex daily realities and perceptions of women like Esther. In rural Ghana, women are the primary water managers—responsible for 64% of household water collection—yet their voices are often excluded from water planning decisions that directly affect their lives 7 . Understanding their experiences reveals why improved water sources alone don't guarantee exclusive use, and how gender dynamics, seasonal factors, and cultural considerations shape one of life's most basic necessities.
While quantitative data can tell us what percentage of households have access to improved water sources, it often fails to capture why people make the water choices they do. Qualitative research methods—interviews, observations, and focus groups—help uncover the human stories behind the statistics.
Qualitative data analysis methods like thematic analysis, narrative analysis, and grounded theory allow researchers to identify patterns in human experiences and behaviors 3 8 . When applied to water access, these methods reveal that water source selection is rarely about water quality alone, but involves a complex calculus of practical, social, and cultural considerations.
In-depth conversations that explore personal experiences and perceptions
Documenting actual behaviors rather than relying solely on self-reported practices
Organized discussions that reveal shared concerns and cultural norms
To understand the factors influencing water source choices, researchers conducted an in-depth ethnographic study in four rural communities in Ghana's Eastern Region 7 . The investigation used a multi-phase approach to capture both what women said about their water practices and what they actually did.
Researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with 26 women across four communities during May-June 2016. The interviews followed an adapted survey instrument with open-ended questions about water collection responsibilities, frequency, and perceptions of different water sources 7 .
During January-February 2017, researchers observed four women for up to four days each, documenting their actual water collection and use behaviors rather than relying solely on self-reported practices 7 .
The Eastern Region study and other research reveal that women's water decisions are influenced by a complex interplay of practical, sensory, and social factors that go far beyond basic water safety considerations.
When distance to the nearest borehole exceeded 300 meters, usage decreased substantially, with odds of borehole use dropping to 0.17-0.25 compared to those living closer 6 .
Water taste was a significant factor, with salty-tasting borehole water often rejected for drinking, even when technically safe 1 .
Different water sources were preferred for different household tasks. For instance, some women preferred "soft" river water for laundry because it created more lather 7 .
Male family members' preferences often overrode women's practical considerations, particularly when men controlled household finances 7 .
| Factor Category | Specific Considerations | Impact on Choice |
|---|---|---|
| Practical | Distance to source | Borehole use decreased by 75-83% when distance exceeded 300m 6 |
| Time spent collecting | Average 13 minutes saved daily with new water points 1 | |
| Cost of water | 36% of respondents reported inability to afford water fees 1 | |
| Sensory | Taste of water | Salty or metallic taste reduced acceptance for drinking 1 |
| Appearance | Visible particles or unusual color reduced use 7 | |
| Lathering ability | "Soft" water preferred for laundry 7 | |
| Social/Cultural | Cultural restrictions | Taboos against using certain sources on specific days 7 |
| Gender roles | Women typically responsible for collection but men often control finances 7 |
A critical finding across multiple studies is the disconnect between women's central role in water collection and their marginalization in water management decisions. Despite being primarily responsible for water collection, women are frequently underrepresented in consultations and management committees for water projects 1 .
Water collection responsibility
Representation in water committees
Qualitative research reveals the consequences of this exclusion. One evaluation noted that "despite the fact that women play the primary role in fetching water, qualitative data shows that they were underrepresented in consultations and as part of the management committees around the water points" 1 . This lack of representation means that practical concerns known to women collectors may be overlooked in planning.
| Activity | Control Cluster | High Salinity Cluster | High Iron Cluster |
|---|---|---|---|
| Drinking | Borehole: 78% | Surface water: 4.3x higher odds than control | Borehole: 72% |
| Cooking | Borehole: 75% | Mixed source use | Mixed source use |
| Clothes Washing | Borehole: 65% | Surface water: 8x higher odds than control | Surface water: 6x higher odds than control |
Data adapted from study on water quality and preferences 6
Understanding complex human behaviors like water source selection requires specialized research approaches. Qualitative researchers investigating water preferences typically employ several key methods:
Conversations that follow a guide but allow flexibility to explore unexpected topics 7 .
Shadowing women during daily routines to document actual behaviors 7 .
Organized discussions that generate insights through participant interaction 1 .
Identifying patterns in qualitative data to interpret water-related behaviors 3 .
The insights from qualitative research on women's water perceptions point toward more effective, equitable approaches to water provision in rural Ghana and similar contexts.
Successful water projects must account for local context, including water collection practices and community expectations 1 .
Water quality improvements must address not just safety but acceptability, including taste and other properties 6 .
New approaches like piped water systems can bypass collection barriers at low cost 9 .
Ensuring women have meaningful roles in water management leads to more responsive services 7 .
| Recommendation | Rationale | Potential Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Include women in planning | Women have unique knowledge of water collection challenges and household needs | More appropriate siting and management of water points 1 7 |
| Consider multiple water qualities | Different uses require different water characteristics (soft for laundry, good-tasting for drinking) | Increased exclusive use of improved sources 6 7 |
| Ensure affordable maintenance | 36% of users report inability to afford water costs, leading to system breakdowns | Longer sustainability of water projects 1 |
| Address seasonal variations | Water availability and collection patterns change seasonally | More reliable year-round water access 7 |
The story of water in rural Ghana is ultimately one of constrained choices and daily negotiations. Women like Esther make calculated decisions about water sources based on a complex web of practical constraints, cultural norms, and household needs. Understanding these decisions requires listening to women's stories and observing their daily routines—the very approaches that qualitative research provides.
As efforts continue to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6—universal access to safe water—the lessons from Ghana's Eastern Region remind us that technical solutions alone are insufficient. True progress requires engaging with the social, cultural, and gendered dimensions of water use, and ensuring that those most affected by water decisions have power in shaping them.